Biography - Henry Mintzberg

Books by Mintzberg |

Articles by Mintzberg |

Articles About Mintzberg

 

 

 

Mintzberg was born in Montreal in 1939 and graduated in mechanical engineering from McGill University where he now teaches. He is a prolific author and in many of his books his belief in the importance of practical knowledge is readily apparent. For a discussion of some of his work see: Organization Theory: Structure, Design and Applications, by Stephen Robbins (HD31.R565 1990); "Thinkers: Henry Mintzberg," in The Financial Times Handbook of Management, ed. by S. Crainer (HD38.15F561 1995) and the chapter on him in Great Writers on Organizations, ed. by D. Pugh (DBW stack HM131.P74 1993). For an interview with Mintzberg, see "Henry Mintzberg: Practical Radical" in T.Brown, et.al. Business Minds: Connect with the world's greatest management thinkers (BUS stack HD53.B87 2002). Additional material by and about Mintzberg is listed below for your convenience.

For more biographical and bibliographical information see Mintzberg.org, or this site at McGill.

 

Update: 2009 - A recent interview is found in Fall 2009 issue of MIT Sloan Management Review

Update: In 2007, the Oxford University Press published Tracking Strategies: Toward a General Theory, which contains some of the items listed below and represents Mintzberg's research over a period of time. Here is some information about the book taken from the OUP site in 2007:
" An introductory chapter considers the term strategy, and the various ways it has been and can be used, and then introduces the studies. These are reported in the next ten chapters, with descriptions of what the strategies were, how they formed over time, and how they combined to establish periods in the history of the organization. This is followed by conclusions about the study revealed about the process.
These studies range across business (six studies), government (two studies), an architectural firm, and a university, as well as one professor in that university. They include U.S. strategy in Vietnam (1950-1973), Volkswagenwrk (1937-1972), and the National Film Board of Canada (1939-1975).
The final chapter, entitled 'Toward a General Theory of Strategy Formation', weaves these findings together in two themes. First is strategy formation in different forms of organization: Strategic Planning in the Machine Organization, Strategic Visioning in the Entrepreneurial Organization, Strategic Learning in the Adhocracy organization, and Strategic Venturing in the Professional Organization. The second theme considers stages in the formation of strategies, from Initiation through Development to Renewal.

Here is the:
Table of Contents:
1. Of Strategies, Deliberate and Emergent
2. Patterns in Strategy Formation (Volkswagenwerk and U.S. Strategy in Vietnam)
3. Tracking Strategies in an Entrepreneurial Firm (Steinberg retail chain)
4. Strategy Formation in an Adhocracy (National Film Board of Canada)
5. Into the Mind of the Strategist (Canadian Lady garment company)
6. Does Planning Impede Strategic Thinking? (Air Canada)
7. Tracking Strategies in the Birthplace of Canadian Tycoons (The Sherbrooke Record newspaper)
8. Mirroring Canadian Industrial Policy (Dominion Textile Company)
9. Strategy of Design (Arcop architectural firm)
10. Strategic Management Upside Down (McGill University)
11. The Illusive Strategy (Professor Henry Mintzberg at McGill University)
12. Toward a General Theory of Strategy Formation
Appendix: Steps in Research on Strategy Formation

Update: In 2005 Mintzberg (along with Ahlstrand & Lampel) produced Strategy Bites Back: It is Far More, and Less Than You Ever Imagined, (BUS HD30.28.M5625 2005). Here is part of what A.J. Vogl had to say about it in Across the Board (Vol. 42, No. 3,May/June, 2005, p.71."Strategy Bites Back is a compilation of brief essays and excerpts by some of the foremost thinkers on strategy (rather loosely defined), all breezily introduced by the editors.The titles of some of these essays-"Positioning the Derrière:Toilet Nirvana"and '"Marketing Myopia'Myopia" and "Forecasting: Whoops!"-suggest the editors' cheeky approach to the subject. But there are some first-rate thinkers represented here, from Mintzberg himself to MaoTse-tung to Karl Weick to Jack Welch to Gary Hamel to the Duke of Wellington to Mozart (yes, that Mozart)."Why not have a good time reading a strategy book for a change?" the authors ask in the introduction, and damned if they don't pull it off."

Also in 2005, the journal Academy of Management Learning & Education contains a special feature consisting of comments about the book mentioned below - Managers Not MBAs... The seven reviews and Mintzberg's reaction are all found in the June 2005 issue (Vol. 4, No.2) that is available electronically and in print in the Business Library.

In 2004 Mintzberg published Managers, Not MBAs: A Hard Look at the Soft Practice of Managing and Management Development. As the title implies, the book is critical of MBA programs and Mintzberg argues that that degree "prepares people to manage nothing". For your convenience we will provide here some of the reactions to Mintzberg's book. The full text of the articles is available electronically to members of the UWO/Ivey scholarly community.

Corsini, Skip. "Managers Not MBAs," Training, Vol.41, No.11, Nov. 2004, p.42.

Farquharson, Matt, "Tailor-Made MBAs," Human Resources, April, 2005.

Kennedy, Carol, "Mintzberg's Moral Maze," Director, Vol.58, No.2, Sept. 2004, p.84-86.

Mumford, Alan. "Managers Not MBAs," People Management, Vol. 10, No.17, Sept. 2, 2004, p.48 (Business Library has paper version)

Pfeffer, Jeffrey. "Managers Not MBAs: A Hard Look at the Soft Practice of Managing and Management Development," Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol. 49, No.3, Sept. 2004, p.476-479

Schaffer, Robert H. "Managers, Not MBAs: A Hard Look at the Soft Practice of Managing and Management Development," Consulting to Management, Vol.16, No.1, March 2005, p.52

Stern, Stefan. "MBAs With a Heart," Management Today , Oct 2004. p. M4-M5.

Tyler, Julia. "The MBA Strikes Back," People Management, Vol. 10, No.17, Sept.2, 2004, p. 23. (Business Library has paper version)

Vogl, A.J. "Managerial Correctness," Across the Board, Vol.41, No.4, July/August, 2004, p. 19-24 (an interview)

For additional articles critical of some aspects of business schools and management education see our guide to Sumantra Ghoshal.

BOOKS BY HENRY MINTZBERG
(in reverse chronological order).

Management: It's not what you think (Online)

Managing (Online)

Tracking Strategies: Toward a General Theory (BUS stack HD30.28.T733 2007)

Strategy Bites Back: It Is A Lot More, and Less, Than You Ever Imagined (Online)

Managers Not MBAs: A Hard Look at the Soft Practice of Managing and Management Development (BUS stack HD30.4.M56 2004b)

The Strategy Process: Concepts, Contexts, Cases (BUS stack HD30.28.Q53 2003)

Managing Publicly ( DBW stack JF1351.M56 2000 )

The Strategy Process, with James Brian Quinn and Sumantra Ghoshal, (BUS stack HD30.28.Q532 1998). This work contains over a dozen contributions by Mintzberg, most of which have appeared elsewhere. This is a revised edition of a work published over a decade earlier. We also have other editions. For a review see Long Range Planning, Oct. 1998.

Strategy Safari: A Guided Tour Through the Wilds of Strategic Management (BUS stack HD30.28.M564 1998)
There was second edition released in 2009 (HD30.28.M564 2009)

The Canadian Condition: Reflections of a "pure cotton" (DBW stack F1027.M55 1995)

The Rise and Fall of Strategic Planning: Reconceiving Roles for Planning (BUS stack HD30.28.M56 1994).
In this work Mintzberg criticizes strategic planning and the way it is typically used. For a review of the book and a profile of Mintzberg see Canadian Business, May 1994, p.78.

Structure in Fives: Designing Effective Organizations, (DBW stack HD31 M4572 1993).
This is a revised edition of a work that was first published in 1983, which we also have.

Mintzberg on Management: Inside Our Strange World of Organizations, (BUS stack HD31.M45699 1989).

Organizations: A Quantum View, by Danny Miller & Peter Friesen, (HD31.M4375 1984). This work was written in collaboration with Mintzberg who contributed Chapter 1, "The Case for Configuration", and Chapter 3, "A Typology of Organizational Structure". "The Case for Configuration" is also found in Beyond Method: Strategies for Social Research, by Gareth Morgan (DBW stack H62.B474 1983).

Tracking Strategies in the Birthplace of Canadian Tycoons: The Sherbrooke Record 1946-1976
(HF5001. C68. no.84-019 - this is a working paper) 1984.

Power in and Around Organizations (BUS stack HD38.M4865 1983).

The Structuring of Organizations: A Synthesis of the Research, (DBW stack HD31.M4573 1979).

Impediments to the Use of Management Information, (HF5548.2.M525 1975).

The Structure of Strategic Decision Processes, with Raisinghani & Theoret, (U163.M65 1975). This is essentially a working paper.

The Nature of Managerial Work (BUS stack HD31.M457). See the interesting appendices: "Major Studies of the Manager's Job", "Seven Research Methods Used to Study Managerial Work", and "Study of the Work of Five Chief Executive Officers"

SELECTED ARTICLES BY HENRY MINTZBERG

The following articles by Mintzberg, are listed alphabetically by journal which is the way they are arranged in the Business Library.

Persons must be a current student, faculty or staff member at The University of Western Ontario to access the direct links to the articles.

ACADEMY OF MANAGEMENT EXECUTIVE
"View from the Top: Henry Mintzberg on Strategy and Management / Commentary / Response", V.14, Iss.3, Aug.2000, pp.30-42.
"Leadership and Management Development: An Afterword", V.18, Iss.3, Aug 2004, pp.140-142.

ACADEMY OF MANAGEMENT JOURNAL
"Tracking Strategy in an Entrepreneurial Firm", V.25, Iss.3, Sept.1982, pp.465-500.

ACADEMY OF MANAGEMENT LEARNING & EDUCATION
"The Magic Number Seven - Plus or Minus a Couple of Managers", V.4, Iss.2, Jun 2005, pp.244-247

ACADEMY OF MANAGEMENT REVIEW
"Power and Organization Life Cycles", V.9, Iss.2, Apr.1984, pp.207-225.
"Policy as a Field of Management Theory", V.2, Iss.1, Jan.1977, pp.88-.

ACROSS THE BOARD
"You Meet the Humblest Managers on a Honda", V.26, Iss.10, Oct. 1989, pp.10-12.

ADMINISTRATIVE SCIENCE QUARTERLY
"Strategy Formation in an Adhocracy", V.30, Iss.2, Jun.1985, pp.160-198.
"An Emerging Strategy of "Direct" Research", V.24, Iss.4, Dec.1979, pp.582-589.
"The Structure of 'Unstructured' Decision Processes", Vol.21, Iss.2, Jun 1976, pp.246-275.

CALIFORNIA MANAGEMENT REVIEW
"Learning 1, Planning 0", V.38, Iss.4, Summer 1996, pp.92-93.
"Diversification and Diversifact", V.37, Iss.1, Fall 1994, p8.
"The Pitfalls of Strategic Planning", V.36, Iss.1, Fall 1993, p.32.
"The Strategy Concept II: Another look at why organizations need strategies", V.30, Iss.1, Fall 1987, pp.25-32.
"The Strategy Concept I: Five Ps for Strategy", V.30, Iss.1, Fall 1987, pp.11-24.
"Who Should Control the Corporation?", V.27, Iss.1, Fall 1984, pp.90-116.
"Strategy Making in Three Modes", V.16, Iss.2, Winter 1973, pp.44-54.
"The Myths of MIS", V.15, Iss.1, Fall 1972, pp.92.

CANADIAN BANKER & ICB REVIEW
"The Manager's Job: Folklore and Fact - Part II", V. 86, Iss.3, Jun.1979, pp.44.
(For part I, see HBR citation below).

CANADIAN MEDICAL ASSOCIATION JOURNAL
"Patent Nonsense: Evidence tells of an industry out of social control", V.175, Iss.4, Aug 2006, Special Section pp.1-7.

COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT JOURNAL
"Juxtaposing Doers and Helpers in Development" V.45, Iss.1, pp.39-57

DESIGN MANAGEMENT JOURNAL
"Time for Design" V.17, Iss.2, Spring 2006, pp.10-18, 94-95.

FAST COMPANY
"The MBA Menace", Iss.83, Jun 2004, pp31-32.
"Five Half-truths of Business", Iss.59, Jun 2002, pp.117-121.

FORTUNE
"Do MBAs make better CEOs? Sorry, Dubya, it ain't necessarily so", V.143, Iss.4, Feb 19, 2001, p.244.

THE GLOBE AND MAIL

"Productivity is a Time Bomb: Our misguided faith in
crude economic indicators such as productivity is
going to blow up in our faces, says management
guru Henry Mintzberg",
The Globe and Mail, June 13, 2002, p.A17.

HARVARD BUSINESS REVIEW
"Rebuilding Companies as Communities", V.87, Iss.7/8, Jul/Aug 2009, pp.140-143.
"Productivity is Killing American Enterprise", V.85, Iss.7/8, Jul/Aug 2007, p.25.
"Enough Leadership", V.82, Iss.11, Nov 2004, p.22.
"The Five Minds of a Manager", V.81, Iss.11, Nov 2003, pp.54-63.
"Organigraphs: Drawing how companies really work", V.77, Iss.5, Sep/Oct 1999, pp.87-94.
"Covert Leadership: Notes on managing professionals", V.76, Iss.6, Nov/Dec 1998, pp.140-147.
"Musings on Management", V.74, Iss.4, Jul/Aug 1996, pp.61-67.
"Managing Government, Governing Management", V.74, Iss.3, May/Jun 1996, pp.75-83.
"The Fall and Rise of Strategic Planning", V.72, Iss.1, Jan/Feb 1994, pp.107-114.
"The Manager's Job: Folklore and Fact", V.68, Iss.2, Mar/Apr 1990, pp.163-177.
"Crafting Strategy", V.65, Iss.4, Jul/Aug 1987, pp.66-.
"Organization Design: Fashion or Fit?", V.59, Iss.1, Jan/Feb 1981, pp.103-.
"Planning on the Left Sie and Managing on the Right", V.54, Iss.4, Jul/Aug 1976, pp.49-.
"The Manager's Job: Folklore and Fact?", V.53, Iss.4, Jul/Aug 1975, pp.49-.

HEALTH CARE MANAGEMENT REVIEW
"Managing The Care of Health and The Cure of Disease--Part I: Differentiation and Part II: Integration",
V.26, Iss.1, Winter 2001, pp.56-84.
"Toward Healthier Hospitals", V.22, Iss.4, Fall 1997, pp.9-18.

HR MAGAZINE
"Reflect Yourself", Vol.49, Iss.9, Spring 2004, pp.151-156

INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS LAW JOURNAL
"A Note on the Unionization of Professionals from the Perspective of Organization Theory", V.5, Iss.4, 1983, pp.623-632.

INTERNATIONAL STUDIES OF MANAGEMENT & ORGANIZATION
"Patterns in Strategy Formation", V.9, Iss.3, Fall 1979, pp.67-86.
"Strategy Formulation as a Historical Process", V.7, Iss.2, Summer 1977, pp.28-40.

IVEY BUSINESS JOURNAL
"A Closer Look", V.65, Iss.1, Sep/Oct 2000, pp.24-29.

JOURNAL OF BUSINESS STRATEGY
"The Case for Corporate Social Responsibility", V.4, Iss.2, Fall 1983, pp.3-16.

JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT STUDIES
"The Organization as Political Arena", V.22, Iss.2, Mar.1985, pp.133-155.
"Structured Observation as a Method to Study Managerial Work", V.7, Iss.1, Feb 1970, pp.87-104.

LONG RANGE PLANNING
"Rethinking Strategic Planning, Part I: Pitfalls and Fallacies", V.27, Iss.3, Jun.1994, pp.12-21.
"Rethinking Strategic Planning, Part II: New Roles for Planners", V.27, Iss.3, Jun.1994, pp.22-30.

MIT SLOAN MANAGEMENT REVIEW
"The Education of Praticing Managers", V.45, Iss.4, Summer 2004, pp.19-22
"The Rhythym of Change", V.44, Iss.4, Summer 2003, pp.79-84
"Beyond Selfishness", V.44, Iss.1, Fall 2002, pp.67-74.
"Decision making: It's not what you think", V.42, Iss.3, Spring 2001, pp.89-93.

MANAGEMENT LEARNING
"Management Education as if Both Matter", V.37, Iss.4, Dec 2006, pp.419-428

MANAGEMENT SCIENCE
"Structure in 5's: A Synthesis of Research on Organization Design", V. 26, Iss.3, Mar.1980, pp.322-341.
"Patterns in Strategy Formation", V.24, Iss.9, May 1978, pp.934-948.
"Managerial Work: Analysis From Observation", V.18, Iss.2, Oct. 1971, pp.97-110.

OD PRACTITIONER
"From Management Development to Organization Development with IMpact" V.43 Iss. 3 pp.25-29

ORGANIZATION SCIENCE
"Managing exceptionally", V.12, Iss.6, Nov/Dec 2001, pp.759-771.
"Opening Up Decision Making: The View From The Black Stool", V.6, Iss.3, May/Jun 1995, pp.260-280.

ORGANIZATION STUDIES
"Sustaining The Institutional Environment", V.21, 2000, pp.71-94.
"Studying Deciding: An Exchange of Views Between Mintzberg, Waters, Pettigrew and Butler", V.11, Iss.1, 1990, pp.1-16.

ORGANIZATIONAL DYNAMICS
"The Yin and The Yang of Managing", V.26, Iss.4, Spring 2001, pp.306-312.
"Some Surprising Things About Collaboration-Knowing How People Connect Makes It Work Better", V.25, Iss.1,
Summer 1996, pp.60-72.
"Why America Needs, But Cannot have, Corporate Democracy", V.11, Iss.4, Spring 1983, pp.5-21.
"A New Look at the Chief Executive's Job", V.1, Iss.3, Winter 1973, pp.20-30.

SLOAN MANAGEMENT REVIEW
"Reflecting on the Strategy Process", V.40, Iss.3, Spring 1999, pp.21-30.
"Customizing Customization", V.38, Iss.1, Fall 1996, pp.21-30.
"Rounding Out The Manager's Job", V.36, Iss.1, Fall 1994, pp.11-26.

STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT JOURNAL
"Cycles of Organizational Change", V.13, Winter 1992, pp.39-60.
"Learning 1, Planning 0: Reply to Igor Ansoff" V.12, Iss.6, Sep 1991, pp.463-466.
"The Design School: Reconsidering The Basic Premises of Strategic Management", V.11, Iss.3, Mar/Apr 1990, pp.171-196.
"Visionary Leadership and Strategic Management", V.10, Summer 1989, pp.17-32.
"Of Strategies, Deliberate and Emergent", V.6, Iss.3, Jul/Sep 1985, pp.257-273.
"What is Planning Anyway?", V.2, Iss.3, Jul/Sep 1981, pp.319-325.

STRATEGY & LEADERSHIP
"That's Not 'Turbulence' Chicken Little, It's Really Opportunity", V.22, Iss.6, Nov/Dec 1994, p.7.

SELECTED ARTICLES ABOUT MINTZBERG
(in reverse chronological order)

An interview with Mintzberg:
"Debunking Management Myths", Martha E Mangelsdorf. MIT Sloan Management Review. Cambridge: Fall 2009. Vol. 51, Iss. 1; p. 12

"Understanding the Policy Process: The work of Henry Mintzberg", Craig Matheson, Public Administration Review, V.69, Iss.6, Nov/Dec 2009, pp.1148-1161

"Process Research in Strategy Formation: Theory, Methodology and Relevance", Harry Sminia, International Journal of Management Reviews, V.11, Iss.1, Mar 2009, pp.97-125.

"Is there a 'New Managerial Work'? A Comparison with Henry Mintzberg's Classic Study 30 Years Later", Stefan Tengblad, Journal of Managerial Studies, V.43, Iss.7, Nov 2006, pp.1437-1461.

"Mintzberg's Moral Maze", Carol Kennedy, Director, V.58, Iss.2, Sep 2004, pp.84-86.

"In conversation: Henry Mintzberg", Ivey Business Journal, Stephen Bernhut, V.65, Iss.1, Sep/Oct 2000, pp.18-23.

"View from the top: Henry Mintzberg on strategy and management / Commentary / Response" Daniel J McCarthy, Constantinos Markides, Henry Mintzberg, The Academy of Management Executive, V.14, Iss.3, Aug 2000, pp.30-42

"The Foundations of Strategic Management", Richard Bull, Management Accounting: Journal of the Institute of Cost and Works Accountants, V.77, Iss.9, October 1999, pp.36-40.

"Tale of Two Strategies", Raymond Suutari, CMA Management, V.73, Iss.6, July/August 1999, pp.12-13.

"Essai: Philosophizing on Strategic Management Models", Roland Calori, Organization Studies, V.19, Iss.2, 1998, pp.281-306.

"Knocking the Theory", Trevor Merriden, Management Today, Mar. 1998, pp.105-106.

"My Favorite Strategy Resources", Dan Simpson, The Journal of Business Strategy, V.19, Iss.1 Jan/Feb 1998, pp.7-9.

"Critique of Henry Mintzberg's 'The Design School Reconsidered'", H. Igor Ansoff,  Strategic Management Journal, V.12, Iss.6, Sep. 1991, pp.449-466.

"Structured Observation of Managerial Work: A Replication and Synthesis", Martinko & Gardner, Journal of Management Studies, Vol. 27, No.3, May 1990, p. 329-357.

"Academic Professionals: A Study of Conflict and Satisfaction in Professioriate", H. Copur, Human Relations, V. 43, Iss.2, Feb 1990, p.113-127.

"A Diagnostic Approach to Improving Managers' Operational Effectiveness", Hayes & Dunn, Management Decision, V.27, Iss.4, 1989, p.87-91.

"Mintzberg's Strategic Force", G, Foster, Management Today, Apr 1989, pp.74-76.

"What Managers Really Do", A. Mumford, Management Decision, V.26, Iss.5, 1988, pp.28-30.

"A Survey of Knowledge Acquisition Techniques and Their Relevance to Managerial Problem Domains", Kim & Courtney, Decision Support Systems, V.4, Iss.3, Sep. 1988, p. 269-284.

"Management Update: Strategy and Organization", T. Morris, Journal of General Management, V.13, Iss.3, Spring 1988, p.87-93.

"Matching Computer-Based Information Systems with Organizational Structures", R. Leifer, MIS Quarterly, V.12, Iss.1, Mar 1988, p. 6-73..

"Brain Storming", D. Gottschall, Director, V.41, Iss.8, Mar 1988, p. 58-62.

"Strategy and Organization", T. Morris, Journal of General Management, V.12, Iss.4, Summer 1987, p. 75.

"Studying Managerial Work: A Critique and a Proposal", H. Willmott, Journal of Management Studies, V.24, Iss.3, May 1987, p.249.

"Strategy, Strategy Making, and Performance - An Empirical Investigation", E. Segev, Management Science, V.33, Iss.2, Feb 1987, p. 258-270.

"Role Profiles for Managers in Different Functional Areas", J. Paolillo, Group & Organization Studies, V.12, Iss.1, Mar 1987, p.109-118.

"Are the Classical Management Functions Useful in Describing Managerial Work?", Carroll & Gillen, Academy of Management Review, V.12, Iss.1, Jan 1987, p.38.

"Making Executive Information Systems More Effective", McLeod & Jones, Business Horizons, V.29, Iss.5, Sep/Oct 1986, p. 29.

"Managerial Activity Theory and the Education of General Managers", D. Ashton, Journal of General Management, V.11, Iss.3, Spring 1986, p. 27.

"Beyond Structured Observation: Methodological Issues and New Directions", Martinko & Gardner, Academy of Management Review, V.10, Iss.4, Oct 1985, pp.676-696.

"Images and Ideals of Managerial Work: A Critical Examination of Conceptual and Empirical Accounts", H. Willmott, Journal of Management Studies, V.21, Iss.3, July 1984, pp.349-369.

"Mintzberg Was Right: A Replication and Extension of the Nature of Managerial Work", Kurke & Aldrich, Management Science, V.29, Iss.8, Aug. 1983, pp.975-985.

"Managerial Work: The Influence of Hierarchical Level and Functional Specialty", Pavett & Lau, Academy of Management Journal, V.26, Iss.1, Mar 1983. pp.170-177.

"The Decline of the Management Ethic", Fores & Sorge, Journal of General Management, V.6, Iss.3, Spring 1981, pp.36-50.

"Henry Mintzberg: The Only Man in Step?", G. Bickerstaffe, International Management, V.36, Iss.6, June 1981, pp.31-34.

"How Manager's Plan - The Analysis of Managers' Activities", Glueck & Snyder, Long Range Planning, V.13, Iss.1, Feb 1980, p.70.

"Testing Mintzberg's Managerial Roles Classification Using an In-Basket Simulation", Shapira, et al, Journal of Applied Psychology, V.65, Iss.1, Feb. 1980, p. 87.